Persian Literature

Abstract In Ottoman Turkish poetry, a significant amount of non-Turkish words, expressions, and grammatical structures is observed. Specifically, Arabic and Persian languages have a prominent presence in Ottoman Turkish literary texts. This is, on the one hand, the result of cultural interactions between different literatures and languages, and on the other hand, the consequence of the technical requirements of prosody. This research is dedicated to the analysis of three odes by Taceddin Ahmedi, a great poet of Turkish language in the eighth and ninth centuries AH, from this perspective. The central questions of the research are designed as follows: What is the frequency of Persian morphemes in the selected texts and what are the reasons for the extensive use of Persian elements in these poems? In order to find the amount of Persian elements in the aforementioned poems, after mentioning the text of each ode, we have translated it verse by verse into Persian and analyzed it into its constituent morphemes. Also, in cases where the origin of some morphemes is not very clear, the necessary information in this regard is mentioned. By specifying the Persian morphemes and the total morphemes of these poems, a suitable estimate of the frequency of Persian elements in these texts has been obtained. This research has been conducted using an analytical method with a quantitative and statistical approach. The translation of the poems has been done at the sentence level. The findings of this research estimate the amount of Persian morphemes in the selected poems to be about 29 percent.

Abstract Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) fundamentally approaches language as social practice, challenging the notion of linguistic transparency. This methodological perspective views language not as a clear mirror reflecting objective truths, but rather as a translucent medium that inevitably distorts and reconstructs reality. Within this theoretical paradigm, Van Leeuwen's model of social actors emerges as a particularly valuable analytical tool, focusing on the sociolinguistic and semantic dimensions of discourse to reveal how texts construct representations of social participants. The current study applies Van Leeuwen's social actor framework to examine Mirzadeh Eshghi's socio-political poetry from Iran's Constitutional. This period's literature provides exceptionally rich material for discourse analysis due to its explicit engagement with political themes and social commentary. The research specifically investigates two key components of Van Leeuwen's model: nomination and categorization. Through systematic analysis of discourse-oriented poems, the study traces how Eshghi constructs representations of significant political figures and social groups during this transformative historical period. This investigation pursues three primary objectives: First, to identify the predominant patterns in Eshghi's representation of social actors; second, to analyze how these linguistic choices reflect the poet's ideological positioning; and third, to understand the relationship between these discursive strategies and the broader socio-political context of the Constitutional movement. The study particularly focuses on Eshghi's treatment of power structures and political elites, comparing his representation of different social groups. The analysis reveals several significant patterns in Eshghi's discursive strategies. The poet demonstrates a marked preference for concealed criticism, frequently employing metaphorical language and indirect references when representing social actors. Negative valuation emerges as the most frequent strategy, particularly in depictions of political authorities and power holders. However, the study identifies an important nuance: when addressing specific pillars of power - particularly lawyers and ministers - Eshghi adopts more direct and explicit language, reducing the degree of concealment in his criticism. The findings demonstrate that Eshghi's poetry serves as both artistic expression and political discourse, strategically employing Van Leeuwen's social actor categories to critique power structures while navigating the constraints of his historical context. The prevalence of negative valuation reflects the poet's oppositional stance, while the variation in explicitness suggests sophisticated awareness of discursive boundaries. This research contributes to our understanding of how literary texts participate in political discourse and shape social perceptions during periods of revolutionary change. Furthermore, it validates the applicability of Van Leeuwen's model to historical literary analysis, particularly in non-Western contexts. The study suggests that similar analytical approaches could yield valuable insights when applied to other works of Constitutional-era literature or to political poetry from different historical periods.

Abstract This research explores the poetics of rhetoric in Masnavi Ma'navi, analyzing the artistic, psychological, structural, and didactic-mystical dimensions of Rumi's discourse. The aim of the article is to explain the distinctive stylistic features arising from the fusion of form and content in his mystical speech. Masnavi is recognized as one of the most prominent masterpieces of world mystical literature. The research method is based on a descriptive-analytical framework, examining the rhetorical structure of Masnavi at three levels: language, literature, and pragmatics. The findings show that Rumi, by employing high-level rhetoric, transcends mystical discourse beyond mere abstract conceptualizations, instead using tangible, impactful, and accessible allegories and images to express concepts. Moreover, the artistic functions of rhetoric in Masnavi, including the creation of artistic ambiguity, enhancement of verbal music, audience engagement, and emotional arousal, lead to deep perception and the formation of an emotional bond (devotion) through speech. In the didactic-mystical dimension, the rhetorical discourse of Masnavi does not merely act as an artistic technique; rather, it serves as a tool for "discovering and revealing truth" and a means for guidance and spiritual purification. By integrating rhetorical elements with Islamic mystical teachings, Rumi provides the ground for creating multi-layered discourse and presenting a comprehensive mystical strategy on the path to spiritual understanding.

Poetics, Rhetoric, Masnavi Ma'navi, Rumi, Artistic Structure, Mystical Education, Imagery.

Abstract Sanai Ghaznavi is considered one of the pillars of Persian poetry and literature. Despite the publication of three different editions of his Divan, the literary community still lacks access to a critically revised edition of his poems. On the other hand, the commentaries written on his poetry have also failed to unravel the conceptual complexities of some verses. Accordingly, in the contemporary period, numerous academic studies have been conducted on his Divan, and there remains ample room for further research. In this study, using a descriptive-analytical method, we examine four verses from one of his Tarkib-band poems and, by critiquing the existing reports and commentaries, provide an accurate report and correct interpretation of them. The results of the study indicate that incorrect reporting of the verses, incomplete or inaccurate analysis and explanation, as well as the temporal distance from the poet's era and the obsolescence or semantic shift of certain words and terms, play a more prominent role in the difficulty of understanding these verses. From a broader perspective, it can also be noted that the final work on the critical revision of Sanai Ghaznavi's Divan has yet to be completed. It is astonishing that the first edition of this collection still holds more prestige and value compared to the other two editions.

Abstract “The Concept of Taʾwīl in Nāṣer Khusraw’s Works”


Nāṣer Khusraw was one of the missionaries of the Ismaili faith and among the great Iranian sages and poets. His exceptional mastery of the sciences of his time made him a true polymath. Yet beyond these sciences, he is regarded, alongside Rudaki and Hafez, as one of the three great Iranian poets who had memorized the entire Qur’an.
This distinction granted Nāṣer Khusraw an extraordinary capacity to draw extensively upon the Qur’an in his works. Moreover, in accordance with the Ismaili intellectual tradition—which viewed taʾwīl as the key to unlocking the inner mysteries of the Qur’an—he was able to present his insights, discoveries, and, most importantly, his interpretations in a revelatory and symbolic framework.
This article examines Nāṣer Khusraw’s intellectual indebtedness to thinkers such as the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ in the field of taʾwīl, and then analyzes his profound application of this method in some his works. These texts have been studied and critically examined in order to uncover Nāṣer Khusraw’s distinctive perspective on taʾwīl—not merely as a means of decoding Qur’anic verses, but also in interpreting the traditions of the Infallibles, and even the views and opinions of philosophers such as Aristotle. This demonstrates his particular expertise and originality in this domain.
Employing an analytical–interpretive approach, this study shows that the project initiated by the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ and the Ismailis within Islamic civilization, and later institutionalized by figures such as Nāṣer Khusraw, undoubtedly played a significant role in expanding the horizons of rationality and intellectual thought grounded in taʾwīl.

Keywords: Nāṣer Khusraw, Qur’an, Taʾwīl, Ismaili Thought.

Abstract In the Divan of Hafez, solitude, as one of the most fundamental human experiences, has a prominent, multilayered, and complex presence. Nevertheless, in previous studies this concept has often been examined in a fragment search findings indicate that solitude in Hafez’s poetry is not a one-dimensional phenomenon. Also, the analysis showed that although solitude in Hafez's poetry appears at the surface level, it is predominantly formed at the level of deep semantic structure. On this basis ,the results also show that solitude in the Divan of Hafez constitutes an inseparable part of human experience and the path of consciousness, which can be understood and expanded through an analytical and differentiated approach. Moreover, solitude—especially in philosophical and mystical domains—often performs a positive, consciousness-raising, and constructive function. Therefore, solitude is not the end of communication, but rather the beginning of reconstructing the relationship between the human being and the self, the world, and truth. The path from isolation to individuation and ultimately to unified individuality further indicates that solitude in Hafez’s poetry is part of the process of existential maturity and human self-awareness.

The methodological approach of the present research is descriptive-analytical and interpretive, and its theoretical foundation is based on qualitative content analysis.

Abstract In the discourse and textual analysis of Attar's quatrains, in order to achieve the macro structure of his quatrains (its intellectual and content framework), first his quatrains were divided into two general categories of "powerful" and "defeated" quatrains, and then structures and sub-structures. The values of each category have been determined. In terms of the structures used, all quatrains are divided into three categories: single structure, two structure and three structure. In both categories, the structures of description, recommendation, explanation, as well as the substructures of wish and desire, regret, delay, and surprise are visible. The most important structure in both categories is description, which has its own diversity according to the subject of each chapter. The structure of description includes: description of the state of oneself, God, man and the world. What differentiates these quatrains from each other is the description of the poet's own situation, which in defeated quatrains is usually based on discovery and intuition; And in the empowered quatrains, it is based on Sharia and common literary and mystical traditions. The clarity and clarity of the meaning is the most important feature of the empowered quatrains, and the polysemy, ambiguity, contradiction and tendency towards the metaphorical pole of the language is considered the most important feature of the defeated quatrains of Attar. Although the quatrains are almost like the poet's ghazals, there is not much evidence of the story of Sheikh Sanan and Hallaj, which he dealt with in his other works, especially in his ghazals, and only in a few quatrains there are references to the subject of Qalandriyat. You can see the distance to the story of Sheikh Sanan. These quatrains are considered emotional and lyrical due to the fact that the direction of the speech is often towards the speaker.

Abstract Sadegh Hedayat, as a pioneer writer of Iranian contemporary novel, has always used psychological motifs in his works. His "Boof-e Koor"[The Blind Owl], out of his other works, is much more influenced by psychological motifs and can be regarded as a psychological novel. What seems important being analyzed in this story is the approach of narrator and his contradictions toward Sadegh Hedayat, himself.
The narrator, as the story’s main axis, is the one whose mind structure should be carefully recognized to judge about his manner of narration. Since the narrator’s mind has many contradictions and incompatibilities, his character structure seems being constructed out of various taboos orienting his mind.
In this study we try to psychoanalyze the narrator’s character, his spiritual taboos and the reasons of their formation to understand why the narrator's character has been formed in this way. Woman seems being the most principle social and psychological taboo of the story. The narrator’s special psychological structure in various stages of his mental development reflects three female characters throughout the story.

Abstract The title of any written work is a name the author, or the critic, chooses for it. A book title is not important because it makes an identity for it or makes it different from other works, but it can indicate the quality and the importance in terms of structure as well.   The title is the first sign thet the reader confronts with, and the reader can recognize the works' content and its other media facilities due to the meaningful relation between the title and the text (or between the structure and the concept). Studying the title of Akhavan-Sales' works, their overall title or the title of each poem, is one of the effective methods for reading and understanding of his poetry. So, considering the title of a literary work, it is possible to realize its content and the authors or poet's thinking and emotional moods.  To achieve a suitable result, the content analysis method, as one of the proposed research methods in the field of humanities, was used. In addition, a survey methodology has been used to classify the obtained documents.

Abstract One of Eco-critical subjects that explore the relation between literature and environment is the man’s specific view to nature, affected by different factors such as sex, time, culture and thought. Persian poems have manifested the variety of man’s relation to nature in the course of literary history. Five general views on nature have been introduced through the study of Persian descriptive poems, in this article, to explore the effects of time and the poets’ specific outlooks in their relations to nature and their descriptive manners. On a more general view, it can be found that some parts of nature description in their poetry is not a description of a severe natural environment, and just few examples can be found giving objective descriptions of nature. At last, the necessity of an Eco-critical approach to nature appropriate to the needs of civilized modern world is going to be discussed. Through such view, we witness some changes in nature description in which all natural phenomenon are beautiful and valuable, apart from man’s choice. This approach can positively affect man’s relation to his environment.

Abstract The 6^th and 7^th Hijri centuries were two of the very brilliant periods of Persian language and literature, especially in the field of mystical poetry which emerged and developed by three of Iranian-Islamic great mystics: Sanāie, Attar and Mowlavi. Their same and close understanding and feeling toward God, universe and … resulted in an intellectual system on which realizing the effect of each depends on the understanding of the work, the individuation and the special identity of two others. We would point, in present essay, to some of Mowlavie’s derivations and connexions with the thoughts, works and allegories Sanāie used in his Hadiqa depending on both works of Mathnavi and Hadiqat al Haqiqa. Not only in thought but in the manner of his presentation,Mowlavi was inspired by Sanāie in many cases. The primacy of mercy belongs to Sanāie over here and the development to Mowlavi. Mowlavi expressed the difficulties and the delicacies of mysticism in a popular and very persuasive language, but Sanāie’s language in Hadiqa, regardless to its literary complexity had its own special features.
 
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Abstract Language is a system of overlapping relations, in a way that the concept of a component would not be transferred except in relation with other components and elements. There are two types of relationship between the linguistic structures: verbal and semantic relationships which are intimately linked to each other, because the word holds the meaning and is a means to express it.  Considering the importance of semantic relations in compound sentences and conditional sentences in special, it has been tried in present essay through a descriptive – analytic method, to study the semantic  structure of these sentences, the factors affect the meaning expression, and the relation between the main and the consequence clauses(protasis and apodosis clauses) of conditional sentences - as a matter has been neglected by Persian grammarians, scrutinizing the linguistic structures of the Persian conditional sentences have been selected from Persian literary works. The main achievements of this paper indicate that there is a semantic correlation between the main and the consequence clauses in conditional sentences, and this semantic relation divides in to two types of causative and non-causative correlation. 

Abstract The specific aspects of words and, by extension, the language of Sohrab Sepehri have been explored through this descriptive – analytic study.It includes the study of words from the perspective of their types and structures with an emphasis on innovation, the study of adjective deviations such as: "the green silence of the grass",  the study of the archaic words, grammatical changes of the words such as the changes occur in the adjectives: " the net-curtain black", or the changes occur in the nouns: " the claws of silver" and the changes occur in the adverbs: "With a body of forevers of injury", and the study of innovative descriptive - possessive Compounds. We are going to show, through this study, that Sepehri has had a considerable share in coining new words (neologism), and ultimately in Persian language enrichment.
 

Abstract The word “Cycle” (Dowr in Persian) has been used in the old prosody, but cyclic meter has been discussed anymore. Cyclic meters, in modern prosody, refers to a group of intermitted-basis meters that standing a long syllable instead of stretched syllable at the end of half-hemistich makes no disorder in the meter, and the poet is allowed to use a stretched syllable in half-hemistich of these meters instead of a long syllable. The definition of cyclic meter and its circumstances have been always controversial between experts. Cycle in music and old prosody, explanation of cyclic meters circumstances, a critical analysis of cyclic meters features and their differences with intermitted-basis meters are being studied in present paper. The definition of "periodicity" and "the silence time in half-hemistich" for the meters in Persian poetry and the origin of poetic license will subsequently be reviewed and the distinction between cyclic and non-cyclic prosodies will be discussed on the basis of these two features.