Persian Literature

Abstract There is no self-sufficient text. Each text is an intertextuality of hypotexts (earlier texts) and will be, at a same time, an intertextuality of the hypertexts (future texts). Intertextuality is a modern approach that plays an important role in exploring the relations between different texts. Lyricism, as an introduction to ode, is a suitable arena for lyrical expression performance. The Persian lyricism is not a self-sufficient text, but it is an intertextual for its earlier text as much as it is considered an intertextual for sonnet. The introductions of Arabic odes are outstanding intertextualities for Persian lyricism.  Persian lyricism has been affected by Arabic intertextuals not only in form but in content. It has been trying to explore the hidden text of Persian lyricism through a transtexual approach. Persian lyricism has both explicit and implicit relation with its earlier text. The hypotext and the hypertext of lyricism establish intertextual and transtextual relations with each other.   

Abstract Many experts believe in Anvari as a leading innovator in Sonnet, a pioneer and the initiator of a style that culminated with Sa'adi's romances. But language scholars have not paid so much to Anvari's syntactic issues discussing his innovations.  The present paper is to get a stylistic understanding out of Anvari's syntax in his sonnets and quatrains, because explaining the reasons why he is considered a stylist, a poet who is genius in language and completely aware of his behavior to it, would basically possible through exploring the syntactic features of his language. It can be seen, in this review that the high frequency of verbal mode (to say) and metonymy compounds, using more than two verbs in a verse, semantic integration of two hemistiches, hiding the element of repetition with syntax games and taking advantage of the syntax diversity in language are the dominant elements of Anvari's style in his sonnets and quatrains. And it will also be seen how the poet uses prepositions to establish an independent personal style and this step was the first stark ignited the fire of this surprising usage, for the first time, in the poetry of Sa'adi, the genius poet.

Abstract The third turn (nawbah) of Kašf al-asrār (Unveiling of mysteries) is a collection of Sufis' fragments concerns the interpretation of Qur'ān by Abu’l-Fażl Rašid-al-Din Meybodi. Most of them are referred to "the Elder of the Path" (pir-e tariqat) or to some general unknown titles. It was previously assumed that "the Elder of the Path" was a certain person who had probably been Maybodi's spiritual master. Some of the rhymed (musajja') phrases, attributed to the Elder of the Path, reinforced the suspicion that the title refers to khwaja 'Abdullah Ansari, to the point that some researchers have been trying to derive Khwaja's interpretation out of Meybodi's and to estimate its potential volume. Later, it was however hypothesized that these "Elders" would not refer to a specific person and they can be different ones. It has been tried, in present study, to detect the identity of some of these unknown speakers and to seek the history of their sayings in the sources existed before Meybodi. The analysis of the unknown speakers' statistics in the 3^rd turn of Kašf al-asrār raises another hypothesis that many of these "Elders" might have no specific sources or references, and, it is possible that Meybodi himself had added tes title to many of fragments that had certain literal pattern.  

Abstract Every speech appears in an extra-textual context that functionalist linguists call it the Context of Situation and is known as "the requirement of situation" in Islamic rhetoric. As the Functionalist Linguists suggest, the ones (the speaker and the audiences) who participate in a bilateral speaking action are both parts of the Context of Situation. The author addresses the audience in his speaking. He can make a dialogue by giving to the audience a participant role, commenting, and asking his opinion; or he can say something and bring his speech to an end unilaterally, considering no actual role for his audience in this interaction. Recognizing the linguistic difference between Mowlavi's preaching and non-preaching texts is the main issue of present paper: What is the effect of context variation and audience change on the Mowlavi's interaction with the audience and also on his attitude when expressing something in the text? So, implementing Halliday’s Functional Grammar theory, the affecting factors form the interpersonal metafunction in two works (Fihi Ma Fihi and Maktubat as a preaching and a non-preaching work, respectively) of Mowlavi have been studied. Meanwhile, Subjects, interactive speech functions, and modal elements have been analyzed.  

Abstract Semantics and explaining the relation between "form" and "meaning" are subjects have been always proposed in mystical thoughts, although interpreters and rhetoricians have also accepted them with their own special manners and have had very important discussions on it from the points of their own views. But, in the realm of mysticism, semantics is highly consistent with the main ‎doctrines of mysticism, and has its own particular theoretical basis. Meanwhile, the mystical ‎works of 'Ayn al-Quzat and his approach to the semantics issues are very important. Therefore, 'Ayn al-Quzat's mystical contemplations have been studied, in present essay, under seven topics including: 1) the word and the principles of its codification, 2) the form and the substance of expression, 3) the idiomatic meaning and the true meaning, 4) a plurality of the word and meaning, 5) the factual and the virtual utilization, 6) lexical and semantic distinction, and 7) the signified in the absence of the signifier. It will be made clear, in conclusion, that 'Ayn al-Quzat was influenced by existential and mystical cognitive theories in his semantic contemplations, and his understanding of the truth and its hierarchical structure led him to prefer meaning to form.       

Abstract The comment of Professor Shafiee Kadkani about the incomprehensibility of one of Bidel's verses drew itself the particular attention of researchers, as far as Sayyed Hassan Hosseini has devoted one of the chapters of his book: Bidel, Sepehri and Indian Style to explain it, and Mohammad Reza Akrami has written some explanations about it in 25 pages of his book: Metaphor in the sonnets of Bidel. Ali Mo'alem Damghani has also proposed some discussions on this verse in 7^th volume of monthly magazine of poetry. Each of these experts has criticized the verse from their own point of view, however its conceptual problem seems being unsolvable.  Exploring the opinions of other scholars and depending on other Bidel's verses, the present research is to provide a correct concept of the verse through an analytic-descriptive methodology and using library documentations. The research is important because this verse is an example of Bidel's obscure and vague verses and commenting on it can show the judgments of researchers about such verses of him. In addition to the clarification of this verse, the most important result of the research is that the inability of the audience in describing the inner balance between the components of a poem, make one or more verses of a poet's divan being looked meaningless and incoherent.                                                                                                       

Abstract The language of a mystic is the only window through which one can enter the complicated world of his mind and heart from beyond the centuries. All of mystics' experiences have been reflected on the mirror of their literary works. The more their mystical experiences, in a movement from the knowledge of certainty ('Ilm al Yaqin) to the eye of certainty ('Ayn al Yaqin) and from it to the truth of certainty (Haqq al yaqin), are complicated, their rhetoric languages desire to be more mysterious in a movement from simile to metaphor, symbol and paradox. We have achieved, in present essay, another rhetorical classification of mystical propositions clarifying the theoretical principles of seven Maqamas and the mystical ten stations from Sufi books, and enumerating the affective factors on the speech of mystics such as: "the state of sober and intoxication", "the quality of mystic's state and position", "the speaker and the audience", "the mystic's intention of language: a tool for teaching or experience", and "the natural structure of language". Generally, his intention is sometimes teaching, so his expression forms on the axis of "simile and allegory" and it is sometimes about the state of lovers, so the expression forms on the axis of intuition and consequently "metaphor"'. In some cases the mutual Maqamas and states of the lovers are ethical, so the expression tends to be ironic, and, in some other states, the expression is the result of selflessness and annihilation and tends to be paradoxical and mysterious.    

Abstract The term "khorujgâh" has been frequently applied in some classical Persian literary texts, such as those in 12^th and 13^th centuries AD (5^th and 6^th centuries AH). Nowadays, our primary understanding of the term is "the place or the time of exit". Some contemporary researchers have compared the first component of this term "khoruj" with "khoriž" and its various forms in some dialects [such as khorij, khorič, khurij, khurič, khomuj, khumuj] and they have finally concluded that "khoriž" means fire. While regarding its application in different literary texts of 12^th and 13^th centuries AD. "khoruj" in "khorujgâh" is the known Arabic infinitive "to exit". Reviewing what the scholars have said, it is shown in present essay, that there is a link between "khorujgâh" and the Quranic phrase of "yawm al-khoruj"(the Day of Emergence) and is equal to "Eidgâh", "namâzgâh" and "moşallâ" to name the place where most of the Muslims gatherings such as praying for Eid al-Fiţr and Eid al-Adha, or praying for rain and their other religious rituals were held. In our days, "Mosalla" has been gradually replaced these names.  

Abstract Didactic satire can be considered as an important part of Persian didactic literature, especially after Sanai. This type of humor is often narrative, sarcastic, bitter, sometimes amoral, abnormal, effective and ultimately purposeful and meaningful. The intellectual infrastructure of didactic satire in Sanai's speech has been studied in present paper. Sanai believed in pure obedience to the Qur'anic teachings and religious guidance as the only way leads to this goal, but man is more interested to move arrogantly relying on his perceptual power. Since these senses are inefficient to obtain such knowledge, they result in the Man's misleading, although He still lives in the illusion of knowledge. So a dual and ridiculous status is going to be created. The didactic satire of Sanai was constructed on a narrow border of knowledge and an illusion of knowledge, and his main purpose of creating such humorous anecdotes and analogies was to boast human being his cognitive errors. So, it can be claimed that most of Sanai's satires were based on Islamic philosophy and his epistemological attitudes, and were established on his abundant criticisms and protests to the man's emphasis on his inefficient cognitive senses to achieve a perfect understanding of the truth.       

Abstract Some evidences and documents that clarify the literary position of Darī Persian in Old Khuzestan have been analyzed in present essay prior to the development of the standard literary genre or until the end of the 12^th century. The evidences can be divided into two groups: First, those belong to the poets attributed to Khuzestan - including Abul ʽAlā Shushtari, Dihqān-i Khuzi, poets of the house of Bunjir, and Bakhtiari of Ahwāz - whose verses have been quoted in Tadhkiras and history books. Secondly, the prose works written in Khuzestan, such as the Quranic interpretations of Abu ʽAli Jubbāʼi and another interpretation Umm al-kitāb. Among the above-mentioned poets, Bakhtiari Ahwazi is probably a counterfeit personality and there is little biographical information about the others; therefore it is so hard to judge on their literary contribution in the history of Darī literature. There is also uncertainty about the existence of the mentioned prose texts or their real geographical origins. Based on these facts, however, the authors of Khuzestan, in comparison to those of Khorasan, seem being familiar with Darī literature even before the rise of the standard literary Persian during 13^th century and had an important role in its expansion and moving toward a standard language.

Abstract The poets who have paid attention to their own poetic name (pseudonym), mostly in sonnets, have benefited several interesting manners that have not yet chosen as the subject of a serious research. Different types of abstraction (such as self-addressing, absent assuming of the speaker,  abstraction through simile, and absolute none-formatted abstraction that are being neglected till now), quoting pseudonym from the words of others, using pseudonym for self-description and choosing hidden and shadowy pseudonym were the techniques most of great lyrics benefited to choose their pseudonym. Using a detailed statistics, the present essay is to analyze the quality of pseudonym usage in sonnets such as the proportion of pseudonym expression to the number of sonnets and the position of pseudonym to the structure of composed poem (in the introduction of essay) and how seven of the top lyrics (Sanā'ī, Anvari, Khāqāni, Sa'adi, Hafez, Saib and Sayeh) used the techniques of pseudonym choosing (in the essay) to achieve a general understanding of pseudonym choosing in sonnet, the approaches each of these poets to the subject, the similarities and dissimilarities of their approaches, the range of their creativity, their effectiveness and the rate of their influence, and their position in this issue.